Perbedaan antara suka,,sayang,,dan cinta !

-Suka adalah saat kamu ingin memiliki seseorang. . .
-Sayang adalah saat kamu ingin membahagiakan orang itu. . .
-Dan cinta adalah saat kamu akan berkorban untuk orang itu . . .

-Saat kamu bersedih dan menangis maka seseorang yg “menyukaimu” akan berkata ’sudahlah jgn  menangis lg’
-Seseorang yg ‘menyayangi’ akan diam dan ikut menangis bersamamu . . .
-Dan seseorang yg ‘mencintaimu’ akan membiarkanmu menangis dan menunggumu hingga tenang lalu berkata ‘mari kita selesaikan ini bersama’

-Saat seseorang yg menyukaimu berada disampingmu maka dia akan bertanya ‘bolehkah aku -menciummu?’
Tetapi seseorang yg menyayangimua maka dia akan berkata ‘biarkan aku memelukmu’
-Dan seseorang yg mencintaimu takkan berbicara..dia hanya akan selalu memegang erat tanganmu seakan dia takkan mau membiarkanmu terjatuh . . .

-Saat kamu menyukai seseorang dan seseorang itu menyakitimu maka kamu akan marah dan takkan mau lg berbicara dengannya..
-Tetapi jika kamu menyayangi seseorang dan seseorang itu menyakitimu maka kamu akan menangis karenanya..
-Dan jika kamu mencintai seseorang dan seseorang itu menyakitimu maka kamu akan tersenyum walau itu pahit dan berkata ‘dia hanya belum tahu apa yg dia lakukan’

-Suka hanyalah keegoisan diri sendiri…
-Sayang adalah memberi dan menerima..
-Dan cinta adalah rela berkorban…

=Suka hanya akan berbuat jika itu menyenangkan..
=Sayang berbuat karena ingin selalu ada untuknya..
=Dan cinta berbuat karena tak ingin membuatnya terluka tak peduli bgaimana keadaan kita. . .





Saat bertemu dgn orang yg benar2 kau kasihi..

Haruslah berusaha memperoleh kesempatan utk bersamanya seumur hidupmu... Karena ketika dia tlah pergi...segalanya telah terlambat..
Saat bertemu teman yg dapat dipercaya..
Rukunlah selalu bersamanya.. . Karena seumur hidup manusia..teman sejati tak mudah ditemukan...
Saat bertemu dg orang yg pernah kau cintai..
Berikan senyuman terbaik untuk berterima-kasih. .. Karena dia-lah orang yg membuatmu lebih mengerti ttg Kasih...
Saat bertemu orang yg pernah kau benci..
Sapalah dengan tersenyum.. Karena dia membuatmu semakin teguh/kuat.. .
Saat bertemu orang yg pernah mengkhianatimu. .
Baik-baiklah n berbincanglah dengannya.. Jika bukan krn dia..hari ini engkau tak memahami dunia ini....
Saat bertemu orang yg pernah diam-diam kau cintai..
Berkatilah dia... Karena saat kau mencintainya. .bukankah kau berharap dia bahagia?!
Saat bertemu orang yg tergesa-gesa meninggalkanmu. .
Berterima kasihlah bahwa dia pernah ada dalam hidupmu.. Karena dia adalah bagian dari nostalgiamu. ..
Saat bertemu orang yg pernah salah paham padamu..
Gunakan saat tersebut untuk menjelaskannya. .. Karena engkau mungkin hanya punya satu kesempatan itu saja untuk menjelaskan. ..
Saat bertemu orang yg saat ini menemanimu seumur hidup..
Berterima kasihlah sepenuhnya bahwa dia mencintaimu. .. Karena saat ini kalian sudah mendapatkan kebahagiaan dan cinta sejati...


semoga kisah ini bisa jadi motivasi dan inspirasi.....





David kuliah di fakultas perdagangan Arlington USA .  Kehidupan kampusnya, terutama mengandalkan kiriman dana bulanan secukupnya dari orang tuanya.
Entah bagaimana, sudah 2 bulan ini rumah tidak mengirimi uang ke David lagi. Di kantong David hanya tersisa 1 keping dollar saja. David dengan perut keroncongan berjalan ke bilik telepon umum, memasukkan seluruh dananya yaitu satu keping uang logam itu ke dalam telepon.
"Halo, apa kabar," telpon telah tersambung,ibu David yang berada ribuan km jauhnya berbicara.
"David dengan nada agak terisak berkata: "Mama, saya tidak punya uang lagi, sekarang lagi bingung karena kelaparan."  "Ibu David berkata: "Anak tersayang, mama tahu ." Sudah tahu kenapa masih tidak mengirim uang?
David baru saja hendak melontarkan dengan penuh kekesalan
pertanyaan tersebut kepada sang ibu, mendadak merasakan perkataan ibunya mengandung sebuah kesedihan yang mendalam. Firasat David mengatakan ada yang tidak beres, ia cepat-cepat bertanya:
"Mama, apa yang telah terjadi di rumah?"
Ibu David berkata: "Anakku, papamu terkena penyakit berat,
sudah lima bulan ini, tidak saja telah meludeskan seluruh tabungan, bahkan karena sakit telah kehilangan tempat kerjanya,sumber penghasilan satu-satunya di rumah telah terputus. Oleh karena itu, sudah 2 bulan ini tidak mengirimimu uang lagi."
Mama sebenarnya tidak ingin mengatakannya kepadamu, tetapi kamu sudah dewasa, sudah saatnya mencari nafkah sendiri."
Ibu David berbicara sampai disitu, tiba-tiba menangis tersedu sedan. Di ujung telepon lainnya, air mata David juga "tes", "tes" tak hentinya menetes, dan ia berpikir:
Kelihatannya saya harus drop out dan pulang kampung.
David berkata kepada ibunya: "Mama,kamu jangan bersedih, saya sekarang juga akan mencari pekerjaan,pasti akan menghidupi kalian."
Kenyataan yang pahit telah membuat David terpukul hingga pusing tujuh keliling.  Masih 1 bulan lagi, semester kali ini akan selesai, jikalau memiliki uang, barang 8 atau 10 dollar saja, maka David mampu bertahan hingga liburan tiba, kemudian menggunakan 2 bulan masa liburan untuk bekerja menghasilkan uang.  Akan tetapi sekarang 1 sen pun tak punya, mau tak mau harus drop out. Pada detik ketika David mengatakan "Sampai jumpa" kepada ibunya dan meletakkan gagang telpon itu sungguh luar biasa menyakitkan, karena prestasi kuliahnya sangat bagus, selain itu ia juga menyukai kehidupan dikampus fakultas perdagangan Arlington tersebut. Sesudah meletakkan gagang telpon, pesawat telpon umum tersebut mengeluarkan bunyi gaduh,David dengan terkejut dan terbelalak menyaksikan banyak keping dollar menggerojok keluar dari alat itu.
David berjingkrak kegirangan, segera menjulurkan tangannya menerima uang-uang tersebut. Sekarang, terhadap uang-uang itu,bagaimana menyikapinya? Hati David masih merasa sangsi, diambil untuk diri sendiri, 100% boleh,
satu: Karena tidak ada yang tahu,
dua: Diri sendiri betul-betul sedang membutuhkan.
Namun bolak-balik dipertimbangkan, David merasa tidak patut memilikinya. Setelah melalui sebuah pertarungan konflik batin hebat, David memasukkan salah satu keping dolar itu ke dalam telepon dan menghubungi bagian pelayanan umum perusahaan telepon.
Mendengar penuturan David, nona pelayanan umum berkata: "Uang itu milik perusahaan telepon, maka itu harus segera dikembalikan (ke dalam mesin telepon)"
Setelah menutup telepon, David hendak memasukkan kembali keping logam uang itu, tetapi sekali demi sekali uang dimasukkan, pesawat otomat itu terus menerus memuntahkannya kembali.
"Sekali lagi David menelepon pelayanan umum yang berkata: "Saya juga tak tahu harus bagaimana, sebaiknya saya sekarang minta petunjuk atasan." Nada bicara David yang sendirian dan tiada yang menolong memancarkan getaran kesepian dan kuyu, nona pelayanan umum sangat dapat merasakannya, menilik perkataan dari ujung telepon dia merasakan seorang asing yang bermoral baik sedang perlu dibantu.                   Tak lama kemudian, nona pelayanan umum menelepon ulang pesawat otomat yang sedang bermasalah itu.  
" Dia berkata kepada David:
"Saya telah memperoleh ijin dari atasan yang berkata uang tersebut untuk anda, karena perusahaan kami saat ini tidak punya cukup tenaga, tak ingin demi beberapa dollar kusus mengirim petugas ke sana." "Hore!" David meloncat saking gembiranya. Sekarang, uang logam itu secara sah dan gamblang menjadi miliknya. David membungkukkan badannya dan dengan seksama menghitungnya, total berjumlah 9 dollar 50 sen. Uang sejumlah ini cukup buat David bertahan hingga bekerja memperoleh upah pertamanya pada saat liburan nanti. Dalam perjalanan ke kampus, David tersenyum terus sepanjang jalan.  Ia memutuskan membeli makanan dengan menggunakan uang itu lantas mencari pekerjaan.  Dalam sekejap liburan telah tiba, David telah memperoleh pekerjaan sebagai pengelola gudang supermarket. Pada hari tersebut, David menjumpai boss perusahaan supermarket, menceritakan kepadanya tentang kejadian di telepon umum dan keinginannya untuk mencari pekerjaan. Si boss supermarket memberitahu David boleh datang bekerja setiap saat, tidak hanya pada liburan saja, sewaktu kuliah dan tidak terlalu sibuk juga boleh bergabung, karena boss supermarket merasa David adalah orang yang tulus dan jujur, terutama adalah  orang yang seksama,membenahi gudang mutlak bisa dipercaya. David bekerja dengan sangat giat, boss sangat mengapresiasinya dan juga merasa kasihan. Si boss memberinya upah dobel.
Sesudah menerima gaji, David mengirimkan keseluruhan gajinya kepada sang ibu, karena pada saat itu David sudah mendapatkan info bahwa ia berhasil memperoleh bea siswa untuk satu semester berikutnya. Sesudah 1 bulan, uang dikirim balik ke David.  
Sang ibu menulis di dalam suratnya: "Penyakit ayahmu sudah agak sembuh, saya juga telah mendapatkan pekerjaan, bisa mempertahankan hidup." Kamu harus belajar dengan baik, jangan sampai kelaparan." Sesudah membaca surat itu, David menangis lagi. David tahu, meski orang tuanya menahan lapar, juga tidak bakal meminta uang kepada David yang sedang perlu dibantu. Setiap kali memikirkan hal ini, David berlinang bersimbah air mata, sulit menenangkan gejolak hatinya. Setahun kemudian, David dengan lancar menyelesaikan kuliahnya. Setelah lulus, David membuka sebuah perusahaan, tahun pertama,David sudah mengantongi laba US $ 100.000. Ia senantiasa tak bisa melupakan kejadian di telepon umum. Ia menulis surat kepada perusahaan telepon tersebut: "Hal yang tak bisa saya lupakan untuk selamanya ialah, perusahaan anda secara tak terduga telah membantu dana US $ 9,50 kepada saya. Perbuatan amal ini, telah membuat saya batal menjadi pemuda drop out dan menuju kondisi miskin, bersamaan itu juga telah memberi saya energi tak terhingga, mendorong saya setiap saat tidak melupakan untuk berjuang. "Kini saya mempunyai uang, saya ingin menyumbang balik sebanyak US $ 10.000 kepada perusahaan anda,sebagai rasa terima kasih saya."
Boss perusahaan telpon bernama Bill membalasnya dengan surat dipenuhi antusiasme: "Selamat atas kesuksesan kuliah anda dan usaha yang telah berkembang. Kami kira,uang tersebut adalah uang yang paling patut kami keluarkan.
Ini bukannya merujuk pada $9,50 yang dikembalikan dengan $ 10.000, melainkan uang itu telah membuat seseorang memahami sebuah petuah tentang prinsip tertinggi kehidupan:  Di saat paling sulit,
satu:  Jangan melupakan harapan sudah ada di depan mata;
dua:  Jangan melupakan menjaga moralitas.
"20 tahun telah berlalu, bagaimana dengan
David sekarang?  Dikota Chicago ? Amerika, terdapat sebuah gedung mewah, yang tampak luarnya menyerupai sebuah bilik telepon umum, itu adalah gedung perusahaan ADDC.  Pendiri perusahaan ADDC, presiden direktur saat ini, ialah David.  David,selain itu juga adalah salah satu penyumbang terbesar untuk badan amal.


Sabtu kemarin, saya berkunjung mendatangi acara Reuni Sekolah, saya bertemu dengan sahabat lama, teman akrab saya dulu, dan saya liat muka yang kurang bahagia, setelah alam berdiskusi, dia bercerita bahwa pada saat ini dia mengalami beberapa kegagalan dalam hidupnya, dia gagal membina Hubungan asmara, dia Gagal Memperoleh pada suatu perusahaan yang dia inginkan.
 
Kita Semua pasti akan menyambut datangnya sukses dengan tangan terbuka. sebaliknya, banyak orang akan berusaha agar tidak mengalami kegagalan. Kenyataannya, sukses dan gagal merupakan "satu paket" yang tidak bisa dipisahkan. Lalu, mengapa kita harus takut pada kegagalan? Yang perlu kita ketahui adalah apa yang harus kita lakukan ketika kegagalan datang. 
 
Jika kita sadar bahwa kegagalan itu merupakan bagian dari sukses dan kegagalan merupakan guru yang terbaik, maka kita tidak akan takut ketika kegagalan datang.
 
Sebagai manusia tentu kita memiliki perasaan dan emosi. Pada saat kita melakukan kesalahan ataupun kegagalan yang menurut kita sangat mengecewakan dan memalukan diri kita, tentu kita dapat merasa kesal, sedih, dan bingung. Tidak jarang pula kita mungkin marah terhadap diri kita sendiri. Jika kita memang merasakan hal yang demikian, kita berhak meluapkan kesedihan kita sejenak dengan menangis, menceritakan kekesalan maupun kesedihan kita kepada keluarga kita ataupun sahabat yang kita percayai, mungkin juga berteriak dengan keras di suatu lapangan rumput yang luas atau berbagai ekspresi kekesalan 
 
kita sudah tahu bahwa kegagalan bukanlah hal yang perlu ditakutkan. Bahkan banyak hal positif yang bisa kita petik dari kegagalan. Selanjutnya, yang perlu kita ketahui adalah langkah-langkah apa yang perlu kita ambil jika kita harus mengalami kegagalan.
 
Kesadaran.
Langkah pertama yang harus kita lakukan adalah menyadari bahwa kita sedang mengalami kegagalan. Tanpa kesadaran ini, kita tidak bisa berlanjut ke langkah perbaikan berikutnya. Biasanya, banyak tanda-tanda yang menyertai datangnya kegagalan, antara lain, hasil penilaian kinerja yang buruk, masalah dalam komunikasi antardepartemen, arus kas yang terhambat, menurunnya keuntungan, ataupun berkurangnya pelanggan secara drastis dalam kurun waktu tertentu.
Evaluasi. Setelah kita sadar bahwa kita telah mengalami kegagalan, langkah selanjutnya adalah mengevaluasi kesalahan apa yang sudah kita lakukan. Evaluasi bisa dilakukan dengan mengurut kembali langkah-langkah yang telah kita lakukan sebelumnya, lalu menganalisa kegagalan yang terjadi.
 
Kegagalan bisa saja terjadi karena faktor internal: keterampilan dan pengetahuan yang kurang, fasilitas dan dukungan yang terbatas, sikap yang negatif, kurang komitmen, atau kurang persiapan. Kesalahan bisa juga datang dari luar: kondisi perekonomian yang memburuk, peraturan dan perundang-undangan baru yang tidak mendukung, atau adanya teknologi baru yang belum kita manfaatkan.
 
Koreksi dan perubahan.
Hasil evaluasi kemudian perlu kita olah agar bisa kita gunakan untuk mempelajari dan menentukan tindakan koreksi yang harus dilakukan dan perubahan yang perlu kita ciptakan untuk membantu kita bangkit dari kegagalan.
 
Konsolidasi.
Setelah tindakan koreksi dan perubahan kita susun, langkah selanjutnya adalah melakukan konsolidasi. Konsolidasi bisa kita lakukan ke dalam ataupun ke luar, dan dengan berbagai pihak, antara lain: atasan, bawahan, rekan sekerja, pelanggan, supplier, bahkan keluarga dan teman. Konsolidasi ini diperlukan untuk menggalang dukungan, mengumpulkan sumber daya yang diperlukan, serta menyusun strategi sukses.
 
Perencanaan.
Setelah konsolidasi dilakukan, perencanaan yang lebih matang pun bisa kita siapkan. Dalam perencanaan, jangan lupa untuk mengantisipasi kendala, kesalahan, dan kegagalan yang mungkin harus kita alami, atau bahkan yang harus kita ciptakan untuk kita jadikan batu loncatan guna meraih sukses (seperti sang keledai yang menggunakan tanah yang dilemparkan ke pundaknya untuk melangkah maju dan keluar dari mulut sumur).
 
Aksi.
Perencanaan yang telah disusun harus segera diimplementasikan. Perencanaan tanpa pelaksanaan tak ada nilai tambahnya. Jadi, setelah semuanya disusun dengan baik, langkah selanjutnya adalah melaksanakannya, yaitu melakukan aksi, setelah itu barulah kita bisa memetik hasilnya. Ayo bergerak stelah pernah mengalami kegagalan.
 
beberapa tokoh dunia seperti Soichiro Honda, Thomas Edison, Rupert Murdock, Albert Einstein adalah orang-orang yang meraih sukses di bidang masing-masing melalui berbagai kegagalan. Mereka sudah membuktikan bahwa kegagalan berada dalam satu paket dengan kesuksesan. Mereka juga telah banyak memperoleh manfaat dari serangkaian kegagalan yang mereka alami. Jadi, jika kegagalan datang, kita tidak perlu patah semangat, pastikan bahwa kita memetik manfaat dari kegagalan dan menggunakannya sebagai batu loncatan untuk meraih sukses,Sukses Adalah Percobaan yang ke… dan Berhasil
 
Banyak orang bijak menjadikan kegagalan sebagai motivasi untuk mencapai kesuksesan. Saat mendapatkan kegagalan, mereka tidak hanya berpangku tangan menyesali diri namun bangkit untuk berusaha memperbaiki kegagalan tersebut hingga mencapai hasil yang diinginkan. Bagaimana dengan Anda...
 
Kehebatan kita bukannya karena tidak pernah jatuh,tetapi mampu bangkit kembali setiap kali kita jatuh"Oliver Goldsmith
 
"Saya berpikir dan berpikir selam berbulan-bulan dan bertahun-tahun.ternayata 99 kali kesimpulannya  salah.Tetapi pada kesempatan yang ke 100,saya betul" Albert Einstein
 
= setelah berhasil bangkit dalam Melewati fase hidup yang menyakitkan =

1. Kehadiran

Kehadiran orang yang dikasihi rasanya adalah kado yang tak ternilai harganya.
Memang kita bisa juga hadir di hadapannya lewat surat, telepon, foto,
atau faks. Namun dengan berada di sampingnya, Anda dan dia dapat
berbagi perasaan, perhatian, dan kasih sayang secara lebih utuh dan
intensif.

Dengan demikian, kualitas kehadiran juga penting. Jadikan kehadiran
Anda sebagai pembawa kebahagiaan.

2. Mendengar

Sedikit orang yang mampu memberikan kado ini. Sebab, kebanyakan orang lebih suka didengarkan, ketimbang mendengarkan sudah lama diketahui bahwa keharmonisan hubungan antar manusia amat ditentukan oleh kesediaan saling mendengarkan. Berikan kado ini untuknya. Dengan mencurahkan perhatian pada segala ucapannya, secara tak langsung kita juga telah menumbuhkan kesabaran dan kerendahan hati. Untuk bisa mendengar dengan baik, pastikan Anda dalam keadaan betul-betul relaks dan bisa menangkap utuh apa yang disampaikan.Tatap wajahnya. Tidak perlu menyela, mengkritik, apalagi menghakimi. Biarkan ia menuntaskannya, ini memudahkan Anda memberikan tanggapan yang tepat setelah itu. Tidak harus berupa diskusi atau
penilaian.
Sekedar ucapan terima kasihpun akan terdengar manis baginya.

3. Diam
Seperti kata-kata, di dalam diam juga ada kekuatan. Diam bisa dipakai
untuk menghukum, mengusir, atau membingungkan orang. Tapi lebih dari segalanya, diam juga bisa menunjukkan kecintaan kita pada seseorang karena memberinya “ruang”. Terlebih jika sehari-hari kita sudah terbiasa gemar menasihati, mengatur, mengkritik, bahkan mengomel.

4. Kebebasan

Mencintai seseorang bukan berarti memberi kita hak penuh untuk
memiliki atau mengatur kehidupan orang bersangkutan. Bisakah kita mengaku mencintai seseorang jika kita selalu mengekangnya? Memberi kebebasan adalah salah satu perwujudan cinta. Makna kebebasan bukanlah “Kau bebas berbuat semaumu”. Lebih dalam dari itu, memberi kebebasan adalah memberinya kepercayaan penuh untuk bertanggung jawab atas segala hal yang ia putuskan atau lakukan.

5. Keindahan

Siapa yang tak bahagia, jika orang yang disayangi tiba-tiba tampil
lebih ganteng atau cantik? Tampil indah dan rupawan juga merupakan
kado lho.
Bahkan tak salah jika Anda mengkadokannya tiap hari! Selain keindahan
penampilan pribadi, Anda pun bisa menghadiahkan keindahan suasana di rumah. Vas dan bunga segar cantik di ruang keluarga atau meja makan yang tertata indah, misalnya.

6. Tanggapan Positif

Tanpa sadar, sering kita memberikan penilaian negatif terhadap
pikiran, sikap, atau tindakan orang yang kita sayangi. Seolah-olah tidak ada yang benar dari dirinya dan kebenaran mutlak hanya pada kita. Kali
ini, coba hadiahkan tanggapan positif. Nyatakan dengan jelas dan tulus.
Cobalah ingat, berapa kali dalam seminggu terakhir anda mengucapkan
terima kasih atas segala hal yang dilakukannya demi Anda. Ingat-ingat
pula, pernahkah Anda memujinya. Kedua hal itu, ucapan terima kasih dan pujian (dan juga permintaan maaf) adalah kado indah yang sering
terlupakan.

7. Kesediaan Mengalah

Tidak semua masalah layak menjadi bahan pertengkaran.Apalagi sampai menjadi cekcok yang hebat. Semestinya Anda pertimbangkan, apa iya sebuah hubungan cinta dikorbankan jadi berantakan hanya gara-gara persoalan itu? Bila Anda memikirkan hal ini, berarti Anda siap memberikan kado “kesediaan mengalah”.
Okelah, Anda mungkin kesal atau marah karena dia telat datang memenuhi janji. Tapi kalau kejadiannya baru sekali itu, kenapa musti jadi pemicu pertengkaran yang berlarut- larut? Kesediaan untuk mengalah juga dapat melunturkan sakit hati dan mengajak kita menyadari bahwa tidak ada manusia yang sempurna di dunia ini.

8. Senyuman

Percaya atau tidak, kekuatan senyuman amat luar biasa. Senyuman,
terlebih yang diberikan dengan tulus, bisa menjadi pencair hubungan
yang beku, pemberi semangat dalam keputusasaan, pencerah suasana
muram, bahkan obat penenang jiwa yang resah. Senyuman juga merupakan syarat untuk membuka diri dengan dunia sekeliiling kita.
Kapan terakhir kali Anda menghadiahkan senyuman manis pada orang yang dikasihi..??

1. Jangan tertarik kepada seseorang karena parasnya sebab keelokan paras dapat menyesatkan. Jangan pula tertarik kepada kekayaannya karena kekayaan dapat musnah. Tertariklah kepada seseorang yang dapat membuatmu tersenyum, karena hanya senyum yang dapat membuat hari-hari yang gelap menjadi cerah. Semoga kamu menemukan orang seperti itu.


2. Bermimpilah tentang apa yang ingin kamu impikan pergilah ke tempat-tempat kamu ingin pergi. Jadilah seperti yang kamu inginkan, karena kamu hanya memiliki satu kehidupan dan satu kesempatan untuk melakukan hal-hal yang ingin kamu lakukan.

3. Ketika satu pintu kebahagiaan tertutup, pintu yang lain dibukakan. Tetapi sering kali kita terpaku terlalu lama pada pintu yang tertutup sehingga tidak melihat pintu lain yang dibukakan bagi kita.

4. Sahabat terbaik adalah dia yang dapat duduk berayun-ayun di beranda bersamamu, tanpa mengucapkan sepatah katapun , dan kemudian kamu meninggalkannya dengan perasaan telah bercakap- cakap lama dengannya.

5. Sungguh benar bahwa kita tidak tahu apa yang kita miliki sampai kita kehilangannya, tetapi sungguh benar pula bahwa kita tidak tahu apa yang belum pernah kita miliki sampai kita mendapatkannya.

6. Pandanglah segala sesuatu dari kacamata orang lain. Apabila hal itu menyakitkan hatimu, sangat mungkin hal itu menyakitkan hari orang lain pula.

7. Awal dari cinta adalah membiarkan orang yang kita cintai menjadi dirinya sendiri, dan tidak merubahnya menjadi gambaran yang kita inginkan. Jika tidak, kita hanya mencintai pantulan diri sendiri yang kita temukan di dalam dia.

8. Orang-orang yang paling berbahagiapun tidak selalu memiliki hal-hal terbaik, mereka hanya berusaha menjadikan yang terbaik dari setiap hal yang hadir dalam hidupnya.

9. Mungkin Tuhan menginginkan kita bertemu dengan beberapa orang yang salah sebelum bertemu dengan orang yang tepat, kita harus mengerti bagaimana berterimakasih atas karunia itu.

10. Hanya diperlukan waktu seminit untuk menaksir seseorang, sejam untuk menyukai seseorang dan sehari untuk mencintai seseorang, tetapi diperlukan waktu seumur hidup untuk melupakan seseorang.

11. Kebahagiaan tersedia bagi mereka yang menangis, mereka yang disakiti hatinya, mereka yang mencari dan mereka yang mencoba. Karena hanya mereka itulah yang menghargai pentingnya orang- orang yang pernah hadir dalam hidup mereka.

12. Cinta datang kepada mereka yang masih berharap sekalipun pernah dikecewakan, kepada mereka yang masih percaya sekalipun pernah dikhianati, kepada mereka yang masih mencintai sekalipun pernah disakiti hatinya.

13. Sungguh menyakitkan mencintai seseorang yang tidak mencintaimu, tetapi lebih menyakitkan adalah mencintai seseorang dan tidak pernah memiliki keberanian untuk mengutarakan cintamu kepadanya.

14. Jangan pernah mengucapkan selamat tinggal jika kamu masih mau mencoba, jangan pernah menyerah jika kamu masih merasa sanggup, jangan pernah mengatakan kamu tidak mencintainya lagi jika kamu masih tidak dapat melupakannya.

15. Memberikan seluruh cintamu kepada seseorang bukanlah jaminan dia akan membalas cintamu. Jangan mengharapkan balasan cinta, tunggulah sampai cinta berkembang di hatinya, tetapi jika tidak, berbahagialah karena cinta tumbuh di hatimu.

16. Ada hal-hal yang sangat ingin kamu dengar tetapi tidak akan pernah kamu
dengar dari orang yang kamu harapkan untuk mengatakannya. Namun demikian, janganlah menulikan telinga untuk mendengar dari orang yang mengatakannya dengan sepenuh hati.

17. Waktu kamu lahir, kamu menangis dan orang- orang disekelilingmu tersenyum. Jalanilah hidupmu sehingga pada waktu kamu meninggal, kamu tersenyum dan orang-orang di sekelilingmu menangis.

AdWords is Google's flagship advertising product and main source of revenue ($21 billion in 2008)[1]. AdWords offers pay-per-click (PPC) advertising, and site-targeted advertising for both text and banner ads. The AdWords program includes local, national, and international distribution. Google's text advertisements are short, consisting of one title line and two content text lines. Image ads can be one of several different Interactive Advertising Bureau (IAB) standard sizes.
Sales and Support for Google's AdWords division is based in Ann Arbor, Michigan[2], the company's third-largest facility behind its Mountain View, California, headquarters and New York City office.[3]Engineering for AdWords is based in Mountain View, California.

AdSense is a program of cooperation via internet advertising held by Google. Through AdSense advertising program, the owner of the website or blog that has been registered and approved for membership may install a form of ad units and the material has been determined by Google in their web pages. The owner of the website or blog will get a profit sharing revenue from Google for each ad clicked by visitors to the site, known as a system of pay per click (ppc) or pay-per-click.




In addition to providing ads with pay-per-click system, also provides a Google AdSense for search AdSense (AdSense for Search), and referral ads (Referral). In the AdSense for search, web site owners can install the Google search box on their web pages. The site owner will get revenue from Google for each search conducted visitors through the search box, which continues to click on ads that are included in the search results. On referral ads, site owners will receive an income after click on the ad continues with specific actions by visitors who have agreed on between Google and advertisers.

The term in AdSense

1. Publisher

Publisher is the person or owner who has joined the site and put AdSense ads on their sites.

2. Ad Units

What is meant by Ad Units are AdSense ads themselves. Ad Units consist of several types and sizes. The most common is the type of text ads. At the time a visitor clicks on this ad unit, then (if legal) advertisers will get revenue in accordance with the CPC values its.

3. Link Units

Link Units similar to Ad Units, except that the format is similar to the usual format of the menu we encountered on web sites. What distinguishes the Ad Link Units Units is at the user clicks on these ads, it will be directed to the search results pages in Google's search engine. New publisher will earn if the visitor clicks on one ad unit on the page. In practice, Link Units proved to generate more revenue than usual Ad Units.

4. AdSense for Content

AdSense for Content is installed AdSense ads within a page. The ads that appear are the ads that are related to the contents page. Or call using contextual concept. Ad Units and Link Units are included in this AdSense for Content.

5. Alternate Ads

AdSense for Content, advertising does not always appear. The reason, among others can because it's advertising inventory relating to the contents of the site is up or Google can not predict what the site actually. If this happens, by default, that displayed a public service ads or often known as the PSA (Public Service Ads). Because type of donations, so if clicked, this ad does not produce anything for the publisher. To fix this, Google allows us to install the Alternate Ads or alternate ads. If Ad Units are made has been set by using the Alternate Ads, so if Ad Units can not be performed, which emerges is an alternative advertising prearranged.

6. Channels

Channels is a kind of label that can be given to the Ad Units, Link Units, AdSense for Search, and Referrals. One ad unit may have more than one label, and vice versa, one label can be used for more than one ad unit. In Google AdSense report page, the results will be grouped according to the report Channels, so that the use will greatly facilitate Channels publishers to analyze their AdSense performance. Generally, publishers will provide Channels the same name on the ad units in one site. If you want more detail, legitimate Channels to provide a different name in each ad unit at each site. To remember, the maximum number of Channels allowed currently are 200 channels.

7. Page Impressions

Page Impressions is the number that shows how many times the page containing the Ad Units opened by visitors. Value is not affected by the quantity of Ad Units in the relevant pages.

8. Clicks

Clicks is the number of clicks on the publisher's Ad Units. In the AdSense report pages, publishers can view the total clicks that he can get, and based on Ad Units or Channelnya.

9. CTR (Clickthrough Rate)

CTR is the ratio in percent between the number of clicks received a number of Ad Units in such Units Ad view. For example, an Ad Units are displayed 40 times and clicked 10 times has a value of CTR 25% (10:40).

10. CPC (Cost Per Click)

The CPC is the amount of money that will be obtained by the publisher when a particular Ad Units clicked. CPC values of each Ad Units vary and are determined by many factors, including the performance and quality of the publisher's site. But in general, the maximum value possible is 20% of the value of dynamic bid offered by the advertiser.

11. eCPM (Effective CPM)

eCPM or CPM (Cost Per Million) is the result of the division between the amount of income by the number of impressions publisher pages (per 1000) which he got from the ads. For example, publishers who produce 200 of 50,000 EUR impressi CPM will have a value of $ 4 (USD 200 divided by 50).

AdSense program policies

Although the AdSense program provides great benefits, Google set strict rules to protect the interests of all involved parties, including advertisers often harmed by the actions of the site owner improperly AdSense program members. Some restrictions that must be adhered to Google website owners or blog AdSense program participants are:

* Clicking on the ads displayed their own sites, either manually or with the help of special software
* By deliberately encouraging visitors to click on ads that appear, for example with the words "click the ads" or "visit this page"
* Change the shape and size of ad units that have been maintained by Google
* Create a direct link to the search results page AdSense for search
* Fill out automatically AdSense search box with a certain keyword
* Manipulate your target keyword ads with hidden or with IFRAME
* AdSense ad unit code must be placed directly on the website html code without changes. The site owner is not allowed to change the AdSense code for any reason, for example with the purpose of showing the results click on the pop-up or divert advertising targets.

AdSense Revenue Optimization

Potential benefits AdSense program made a lot of website owners to develop various methods to increase the number of clicks on their ads displayed. Some methods proven illegal and against the official policy of the AdSense program. Other methods are allowed, even encouraged its use by Google. Several methods are considered valid are:

* Modify the color ad unit using the provided color palette AdSense
* Placing an ad unit on a particular position on web pages that are considered to have high levels of legibility
* Eliminate the outline of your ad units and color match the background color the background with a web page so that the ad units appear to blend with the content of the page

Affiliate Marketing is an Internet-based marketing practice in which a business rewards one or more affiliates for each visitor or customer brought about by the affiliate's marketing efforts. It is an application of crowdsourcing.

The Affiliate Marketing industry has four core players at its heart: the Merchant (also known informally as 'Retailer' or 'Brand'), the Network, the Publisher (also known informally as 'the Affiliate') and the Customer. The market has grown sufficiently in complexity to warrant a secondary tier of players, including Affiliate Management Agencies, Super-Affiliates and Specialized Third Parties vendors.

Affiliate marketing overlaps with other Internet marketing methods to some degree, because affiliates often use regular advertising methods. Those methods include organic search engine optimization, paid search engine marketing, e-mail marketing, and in some sense display advertising. On the other hand, affiliates sometimes use less orthodox techniques, such as publishing reviews of products or services offered by a partner.

Affiliate marketing—using one website to drive traffic to another—is a form of online marketing, which is frequently overlooked by advertisers.[citation needed] While search engines, e-mail, and website syndication capture much of the attention of online retailers, affiliate marketing carries a much lower profile. Still, affiliates continue to play a significant role in e-retailers' marketing strategies.

Search engine optimization (SEO) is the process of improving the volume or quality of traffic to a web site from search engines via "natural" or un-paid ("organic" or "algorithmic") search results as opposed to search engine marketing (SEM) which deals with paid inclusion. Typically, the earlier (or higher) a site appears in the search results list, the more visitors it will receive from the search engine. SEO may target different kinds of search, including image search, local search, video search and industry-specific vertical search engines. This gives a web site web presence.

As an Internet marketing strategy, SEO considers how search engines work and what people search for. Optimizing a website primarily involves editing its content and HTML and associated coding to both increase its relevance to specific keywords and to remove barriers to the indexing activities of search engines.

The acronym "SEO" can also refer to "search engine optimizers," a term adopted by an industry of consultants who carry out optimization projects on behalf of clients, and by employees who perform SEO services in-house. Search engine optimizers may offer SEO as a stand-alone service or as a part of a broader marketing campaign. Because effective SEO may require changes to the HTML source code of a site, SEO tactics may be incorporated into web site development and design. The term "search engine friendly" may be used to describe web site designs, menus, content management systems, images, videos, shopping carts, and other elements that have been optimized for the purpose of search engine exposure.

Another class of techniques, known as black hat SEO or spamdexing, use methods such as link farms, keyword stuffing and article spinning that degrade both the relevance of search results and the user-experience of search engines. Search engines look for sites that employ these techniques in order to remove them from their indices.

Interface generally refers to an abstraction that an entity provides of itself to the outside. This separates the methods of external communication from internal operation (for example two different functions written in C language have the same interface if they have the same arrangements of arguments and the same type of return value, but the function body may be implemented in different way), and allows it to be internally modified without affecting the way outside entities interact with it, as well as provide multiple abstractions of itself. It may also provide a means of translation between entities which do not speak the same language, such as between a human and a computer. Because interfaces are a form of indirection, some additional overhead is incurred versus direct communication.
The interface between a human and a computer is called a user interface. Interfaces between hardware components are physical interfaces. This article deals with software interfaces, which exist between separate software components and provide a programmatic mechanism by which these components can communicate.

Interfaces in practice

A piece of software provides access to computer resources (such as memory, CPU, storage, etc.) by its underlying computer system; the availability of these resources to other software can have major ramifications—sometimes disastrous ones—for its functionality and stability. A key principle of design is to prohibit access to all resources by default, allowing access only through well-defined entry points, i.e. interfaces.[citation needed]
The types of access that interfaces provide between software components can include: constants, data types, types of procedures, exception specifications and method signatures. In some instances, it may be useful to define variables as part of the interface. It often also specifies the functionality of those procedures and methods, either by comments or (in some experimental languages) by formal logical assertions.
The interface of a software module A is deliberately kept separate from the implementation of that module. The latter contains the actual code of the procedures and methods described in the interface, as well as other "private" variables, procedures, etc.. Any other software module B (which can be referred to as a client to A) that interacts with A is forced to do so only through the interface. One practical advantage of this arrangement is that replacing the implementation of A by another one that meets the same specifications of the interface should not cause B to fail—as long as its use of A complies with the specifications of the interface (see also Liskov substitution principle).

 

Introduction

 

A computer network allows computers to communicate with many other and to share resources and information. The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) funded the design of the "Advanced Research Projects Agency Network" (ARPANET) for the United States Department of Defense. It was the first operational computer network in the world.

Network classification

The following list presents categories used for classifying networks.

Connection method

Computer networks can also be classified according to the hardware and software technology that is used to interconnect the individual devices in the network, such as Optical fiber, Ethernet, Wireless LAN, HomePNA, Power line communication or G.hn. Ethernet uses physical wiring to connect devices. Frequently deployed devices include hubs, switches, bridges and/or routers.
Wireless LAN technology is designed to connect devices without wiring. These devices use radio waves or infrared signals as a transmission medium.
ITU-T G.hn technology uses existing home wiring (coaxial cable, phone lines and power lines) to create a high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s) local area network.
Wired Technologies
Twisted-Pair Wire - This is the most widely used medium for telecommunication. Twisted-pair wires are ordinary telephone wires which consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs and are used for both voice and data transmission. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. The transmission speed range from 2 million bits per second to 100 million bits per second.
Coaxial Cable – These cables are widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other worksites for local area networks. The cables consist of copper or aluminum wire wrapped with insulating layer typically of a flexible material with a high dielectric constant, all of which are surrounded by a conductive layer. The layers of insulation help minimize interference and distortion. Transmission speed range from 200 million to more than 500 million bits per second.
Fiber Optics – These cables consist of one or more thin filaments of glass fiber wrapped in a protective layer. It transmits light which can travel over long distance and higher bandwidths. Fiber-optic cables are not affected by electromagnetic radiation. Transmission speed could go up to as high as trillions of bits per second. The speed of fiber optics is hundreds of times faster than coaxial cables and thousands of times faster than twisted-pair wire.
Wireless Technologies
Terrestrial Microwave – Terrestrial microwaves use Earth-based transmitter and receiver. The equipment look similar to satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves use low-gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Path between relay stations spaced approx. 30 miles apart. Microwave antennas are usually placed on top of buildings, towers, hills, and mountain peaks.
Communications Satellites – The satellites use microwave radio as their telecommunications medium which are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space, typically 22,000 miles above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.
Cellular and PCS Systems – Use several radio communications technologies. The systems are divided to different geographic area. Each area has low-power transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next area.
Wireless LANs – Wireless local area network use a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular and a low-frequency radio technology. Wireless LANS use spread spectrum technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area. Example of open-standard wireless radio-wave technology is IEEE 802.11b.
Bluetooth – A short range wireless technology. Operate at approx. 1Mbps with range from 10 to 100 meters. Bluetooth is an open wireless protocol for data exchange over short distances.
The Wireless Web – The wireless web refers to the use of the World Wide Web through equipments like cellular phones, pagers,PDAs, and other portable communications devices. The wireless web service offers anytime/anywhere connection.

Scale

Networks are often classified as Local Area Network (LAN), Wide Area Network (WAN), Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), Personal Area Network (PAN), Virtual Private Network (VPN), Campus Area Network (CAN), Storage Area Network (SAN), etc. depending on their scale, scope and purpose. Usage, trust levels and access rights often differ between these types of network - for example, LANs tend to be designed for internal use by an organization's internal systems and employees in individual physical locations (such as a building), while WANs may connect physically separate parts of an organization to each other and may include connections to third parties.

Functional relationship (network architecture)

Computer networks may be classified according to the functional relationships which exist among the elements of the network, e.g., Active Networking, Client-server and Peer-to-peer (workgroup) architecture.

Network topology

Computer networks may be classified according to the network topology upon which the network is based, such as bus network, star network, ring network, mesh network, star-bus network, tree or hierarchical topology network. Network topology signifies the way in which devices in the network see their logical relations to one another. The use of the term "logical" here is significant. That is, network topology is independent of the "physical" layout of the network. Even if networked computers are physically placed in a linear arrangement, if they are connected via a hub, the network has a Star topology, rather than a bus topology. In this regard the visual and operational characteristics of a network are distinct; the logical network topology is not necessarily the same as the physical layout. Networks may be classified based on the method of data used to convey the data, these include digital and analog networks.

Types of networks

Below is a list of the most common types of computer networks in order of scale.

Personal area network

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computer devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even video game consoles. Such a PAN may include wired and wireless connections between devices. The reach of a PAN is typically at least about 20-30 feet (approximately 6-9 meters), but this is expected to increase with technology improvements.

Local area network

A local Area Network (LAN) is a computer network covering a small physical area, like a home, office, or small group of buildings, such as a school, or an airport. Current wired LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology, although new standards like ITU-T G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing home wires (coaxial cables, phone lines and power lines)[2].
For example, a library may have a wired or wireless LAN for users to interconnect local devices (e.g., printers and servers) and to connect to the internet. On a wired LAN, PCs in the library are typically connected by category 5 (Cat5) cable, running the IEEE 802.3 protocol through a system of interconnected devices and eventually connect to the Internet. The cables to the servers are typically on Cat 5e enhanced cable, which will support IEEE 802.3 at 1 Gbit/s. A wireless LAN may exist using a different IEEE protocol, 802.11b, 802.11g or possibly 802.11n. The staff computers (bright green in the figure) can get to the color printer, checkout records, and the academic network and the Internet. All user computers can get to the Internet and the card catalog. Each workgroup can get to its local printer. Note that the printers are not accessible from outside their workgroup.

 
Typical library network, in a branching tree topology and controlled access to resources
All interconnected devices must understand the network layer (layer 3), because they are handling multiple subnets (the different colors). Those inside the library, which have only 10/100 Mbit/s Ethernet connections to the user device and a Gigabit Ethernet connection to the central router, could be called "layer 3 switches" because they only have Ethernet interfaces and must understand IP. It would be more correct to call them access routers, where the router at the top is a distribution router that connects to the Internet and academic networks' customer access routers.
The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to WANs (Wide Area Networks), include their higher data transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at speeds up to 10 Gbit/s. This is the data transfer rate. IEEE has projects investigating the standardization of 40 and 100 Gbit/s.[3]

Campus area network

A campus area network (CAN) is a computer network made up of an interconnection of local area networks (LANs) within a limited geographical area. It can be considered one form of a metropolitan area network, specific to an academic setting.
In the case of a university campus-based campus area network, the network is likely to link a variety of campus buildings including; academic departments, the university library and student residence halls. A campus area network is larger than a local area network but smaller than a wide area network (WAN) (in some cases).
The main aim of a campus area network is to facilitate students accessing internet and university resources. This is a network that connects two or more LANs but that is limited to a specific and contiguous geographical area such as a college campus, industrial complex, office building, or a military base. A CAN may be considered a type of MAN (metropolitan area network), but is generally limited to a smaller area than a typical MAN. This term is most often used to discuss the implementation of networks for a contiguous area. This should not be confused with a Controller Area Network. A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby buildings.

Metropolitan area network

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that connects two or more local area networks or campus area networks together but does not extend beyond the boundaries of the immediate town/city. Routers, switches and hubs are connected to create a metropolitan area network.

Wide area network

A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a broad area (i.e. any network whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries [1]). Less formally, a WAN is a network that uses routers and public communications links. Contrast with personal area networks (PANs), local area networks (LANs), campus area networks (CANs), or metropolitan area networks (MANs), which are usually limited to a room, building, campus or specific metropolitan area (e.g., a city) respectively. The largest and most well-known example of a WAN is the Internet. A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographic area (i.e. one city to another and one country to another country) and that often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.

Global area network

A global area networks (GAN) (see also IEEE 802.20) specification is in development by several groups, and there is no common definition. In general, however, a GAN is a model for supporting mobile communications across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is "handing off" the user communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial WIRELESS local area networks (WLAN).[4]

Virtual private network

A virtual private network (VPN) is a computer network in which some of the links between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network (e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires. The data link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunneled through the larger network when this is the case. One common application is secure communications through the public Internet, but a VPN need not have explicit security features, such as authentication or content encryption. VPNs, for example, can be used to separate the traffic of different user communities over an underlying network with strong security features.
A VPN may have best-effort performance, or may have a defined service level agreement (SLA) between the VPN customer and the VPN service provider. Generally, a VPN has a topology more complex than point-to-point.
A VPN allows computer users to appear to be editing from an IP address location other than the one which connects the actual computer to the Internet.

Internetwork

An Internetwork is the connection of two or more distinct computer networks or network segments via a common routing technology. The result is called an internetwork (often shortened to internet). Two or more networks or network segments connect using devices that operate at layer 3 (the 'network' layer) of the OSI Basic Reference Model, such as a router. Any interconnection among or between public, private, commercial, industrial, or governmental networks may also be defined as an internetwork.
In modern practice, interconnected networks use the Internet Protocol. There are at least three variants of internetworks, depending on who administers and who participates in them:
  • Intranet
  • Extranet
  • Internet
Intranets and extranets may or may not have connections to the Internet. If connected to the Internet, the intranet or extranet is normally protected from being accessed from the Internet without proper authorization. The Internet is not considered to be a part of the intranet or extranet, although it may serve as a portal for access to portions of an extranet.

Intranet

An intranet is a set of networks, using the Internet Protocol and IP-based tools such as web browsers and file transfer applications, that is under the control of a single administrative entity. That administrative entity closes the intranet to all but specific, authorized users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal network of an organization. A large intranet will typically have at least one web server to provide users with organizational information.

Extranet

An extranet is a network or internetwork that is limited in scope to a single organization or entity but which also has limited connections to the networks of one or more other usually, but not necessarily, trusted organizations or entities (e.g., a company's customers may be given access to some part of its intranet creating in this way an extranet, while at the same time the customers may not be considered 'trusted' from a security standpoint). Technically, an extranet may also be categorized as a CAN, MAN, WAN, or other type of network, although, by definition, an extranet cannot consist of a single LAN; it must have at least one connection with an external network.

Internet

The Internet consists of a worldwide interconnection of governmental, academic, public, and private networks based upon the networking technologies of the Internet Protocol Suite. It is the successor of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) developed by DARPA of the U.S. Department of Defense. The Internet is also the communications backbone underlying the World Wide Web (WWW). The 'Internet' is most commonly spelled with a capital 'I' as a proper noun, for historical reasons and to distinguish it from other generic internetworks.
Participants in the Internet use a diverse array of methods of several hundred documented, and often standardized, protocols compatible with the Internet Protocol Suite and an addressing system (IP Addresses) administered by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority and address registries. Service providers and large enterprises exchange information about the reachability of their address spaces through the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), forming a redundant worldwide mesh of transmission paths.

Basic hardware components

All networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect network nodes, such as Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers. In addition, some method of connecting these building blocks is required, usually in the form of galvanic cable (most commonly Category 5 cable). Less common are microwave links (as in IEEE 802.12) or optical cable ("optical fiber"). An ethernet card may also be required.

Network interface cards

A network card, network adapter, or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of computer hardwareMAC addresses. designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer network. It provides physical access to a networking medium and often provides a low-level addressing system through the use of

Repeaters

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher power level, or to the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable which runs longer than 100 meters.

Hubs

A network hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied unmodified to all ports of the hub for transmission. The destination address in the frame is not changed to a broadcast address.[5]

Bridges

A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learn which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address only to that port. Bridges do send broadcasts to all ports except the one on which the broadcast was received.
Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is stored and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port. The first time that a previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame arrived.
Bridges come in three basic types:
  1. Local bridges: Directly connect local area networks (LANs)
  2. Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced with routers.
  3. Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs

Switches

A network switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer 2 datagrams (chunk of data communication) between ports (connected cables) based on the MAC addresses in the packets.[6] This is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the packets to the ports involved in the communications rather than all ports connected. Strictly speaking, a switch is not capable of routing traffic based on IP address (OSI Layer 3) which is necessary for communicating between network segments or within a large or complex LAN. Some switches are capable of routing based on IP addresses but are still called switches as a marketing term. A switch normally has numerous ports, with the intention being that most or all of the network is connected directly to the switch, or another switch that is in turn connected to a switch.[7]
Switch is a marketing term that encompasses routers and bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic on load or by application content (e.g., a Web URL identifier). Switches may operate at one or more OSI model layers, including physical, data link, network, or transport (i.e., end-to-end). A device that operates simultaneously at more than one of these layers is called a multilayer switch.
Overemphasizing the ill-defined term "switch" often leads to confusion when first trying to understand networking. Many experienced network designers and operators recommend starting with the logic of devices dealing with only one protocol level, not all of which are covered by OSI. Multilayer device selection is an advanced topic that may lead to selecting particular implementations, but multilayer switching is simply not a real-world design concept.

Routers

A router is a networking device that forwards packets between networks using information in protocol headers and forwarding tables to determine the best next router for each packet. Routers work at the Network Layer of the OSI model and the Internet Layer of TCP/IP.

 

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